Lucas Cranach the Elder, The Suicide of Lucretia
Lucretia Moribunda: Honor and Suicide at the Hands of Sexual Assault in Livy’s Book One
By Dara Sánchez
After translating and analyzing a section of The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity, I chose to translate a passage from the first book of Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita because, like the early Christian martyrs Perpetua and Felicity, Lucretia was a martyr who died for her moral beliefs. Although these women had different religious creeds, they were both concerned with virtues like modesty and honor. Moreover, the horrible conditions that they endured because of a violent outside world, such as Tarquinius’ sexual assault of Lucretia and the bodily harm Perpetua experienced during the circus games, made these women sympathetic yet courageous personalities. As Perpetua dies on her own terms when she points the soldier’s sword to kill her, so too does Lucretia kill herself by her own sword. Both women take agency and use death to highlight just how important they deem their beliefs—so much so that they are willing to die for them. Having considered these similarities, I ventured to capture the kindred bravery of Lucretia as I went from Latin to English.
As you read my translation, notice how Livy is careful to present Lucretia as the most noble woman, thus emphasizing the tragedy of Lucretia’s honorable death. For example, Livy consistently uses military language when describing Tarquinius’ sexual assault,[1] such as cum uicisset obstinatam pudicitiam when he defeated her firm chastity (58.5), uictrix libido, profectusque inde Tarquinius ferox expugnato decore muliebri esset (58.5) just as though his lust was the winner/conqueror, and from there cruel Tarquinius had set out to assault her womanly honor, and Sex. est Tarquinius qui hostis pro hospite priore nocte ui armatus mihi sibique (11.8) It is Sextus Tarquinius, who, the previous night, as an enemy instead of a guest, armed with violence, assaulted me, and he brought his destructive lust upon me. This military language transforms a story of sexual assault into the battlefield, equating the experience of a woman (associated with domestic duties in ancient Roman society) with the virtues of war honor (associated with manly virtue). This has the effect of validating her experiences by highlighting how she fought to maintain agency during the sexual assault. Although defeated, Lucretia retains her honor, first by not submitting to the threat of death and choosing the idea of death over succumbing to sexual coercion (58.4), and once again when she chooses to comply with Tarqunius’ demands at the threat of being framed for adultery (58.4–5). Later, in the section where she commits suicide, Lucretia has the men swear an oath to avenge her, which allows her to maintain her honor once more. The importance of Lucretia maintaining her agency and ending her own life shows that she was willing to die for her beliefs and to protect her honor. Given the value placed on women’s chastity (which is tied to the importance of the legitimacy of children), the dissolution of this value through Tarquinius’ sexual assault threatens to undo her social position as a chaste and virtuous woman, which Livy demonstrated in the previous scenes when she alone is found weaving alongside her woman servants. The thought that Lucretia might have become pregnant from this assault would have upset the social boundaries of what was accepted at that time and complicated the womanly virtues that characterizes her.
Ultimately, Livy’s retelling of Lucretia’s strict moral compass and faithful adherence to her own beliefs solidifies her status as a martyr to readers like myself. Her suicide tragically and strategically helps her maintain her virtues in a time when the chastity of women was an integral part of their moral and social value. I hope that in reading the following translation, Lucretia will be understood as a complex character with a profound understanding of the options available to her as a woman and who maintains her agency as a survivor by facilitating how she is remembered.
Chapter 57
[1] Ardeam Rutuli habebant, gens, ut in ea regione atque in ea aetate, diuitiis praepollens; eaque ipsa causa belli fuit, quod rex Romanus cum ipse ditari, exhaustus magnificentia publicorum operum, tum praeda delenire popularium animos studebat,
The Rutulians, a powerfully rich clan, were in control of Ardea,I as they were also in this region at this time; and that itself was the very cause of war, because a Roman king, impoverished by the splendor of public works, was eager to both enrich himself and to entice the minds of his compatriots with spoils,
[2] praeter aliam superbiam regno infestos etiam quod se in fabrorum ministeriis ac seruili tam diu habitos opere ab rege indignabantur.
aside from another instance of his arrogance, they were also hostile to his reign because for a long time they resented that they were being managed by the king like [he was employing] the service of workmen and [those who do] servile labor.II
[3] temptata res est, si primo impetu capi Ardea posset: ubi id parum processit, obsidione munitionibusque coepti premi hostes.
There was an attempt to see whether Ardea could be captured by a foremost attack: when that [plan] turned out unsuccessfully, the enemies began to be overwhelmed by a blockade and fortifications.
[4] in his statiuis, ut fit longo magis quam acri bello, satis liberi commeatus erant, primoribus tamen magis quam militibus;
In these standing camps, as it happens that war is more tedious than vigorous, and there were sufficient furloughs freely given, yet more for the men-of-first-rank than for the soldiers;
[5] regii quidem iuuenes interdum otium conuiuiis comisationibusque inter se terebant.
the king’s young princes were truly spending time in leisure, now and then, by feasting in banquets among themselves.
[6] forte potantibus his apud Sex. Tarquinium, ubi et Collatinus cenabat Tarquinius, Egeri filius, incidit de uxoribus mentio. suam quisque laudare miris modis;
By chance, when these men were drinking in the company of Sextus Tarquinius, and where Collatinus Tarquinius, the son of Egerius, was dining, the subject of their wives came about. And every man praised his own (wife) by amazing measures;
[7] inde certamine accenso Collatinus negat uerbis opus esse; paucis id quidem horis posse sciri quantum ceteris praestet Lucretia sua. ‘quin, si uigor iuuentae inest, conscendimus equos inuisimusque praesentes nostrarum ingenia? id cuique spectatissimum sit quod necopinato uiri aduentu occurrerit oculis.’
thereupon, with competition kindled, Collatinus said that there was no need for these speeches; that in a few hours, it would certainly be possible to know how much his own Lucretia had surpassed their other wives. “If the vigor of youth belongs to us, why don’t we climb upon our horses and review the innate qualities of our wives in person? Let it be very closely observed by everyone, what he shall come to see with his own eyes, when her husband arrives unexpectedly.”
[8] incaluerant uino; ‘age sane’ omnes; citatis equis auolant Romam. quo cum primis se intendentibus tenebris peruenissent, pergunt inde Collatiam,
They had become heated with wine: “Well certainly!” they all said; and they hastened to Rome on their swift horses. Where they had arrived when darkness was beginning to cast itself, thenceforth they proceeded into Collatia,III
[9] ubi Lucretiam haudquaquam ut regias nurus, quas in conuiuio luxuque cum aequalibus uiderant tempus terentes sed nocte sera deditam lanae inter lucubrantes ancillas in medio aedium sedentem inueniunt.
whereby they found Lucretia, in no way doing the same as the royal daughters-in-law, whom they had seen passing the time in banquet and luxury with their companions, but [in fact], in the late night, sitting among her slave girls, and working by lamplight in the middle of the room devoted to the wool.
[10] muliebris certaminis laus penes Lucretiam fuit. adueniens uir Tarquiniique excepti benigne; uictor maritus comiter inuitat regios iuuenes. ibi Sex. Tarquinium mala libido Lucretiae per uim stuprandae capit; cum forma tum spectata castitas incitat.
The glory of the women’s contest was in the hands of Lucretia. Arriving, her husband and the Tarquinii were received courteously; her triumphant husband graciously invited the royal youths. Thereupon, a wicked desire for defiling Lucretia by force seized Sextus Tarquinius; both her beauty and tested chastity aroused him.
[11] et tum quidem ab nocturno iuuenali ludo in castra redeunt.
And then, they also returned from their nocturnal pastime to the camps.
Chapter 58
[1] paucis interiectis diebus Sex. Tarquinius inscio Collatino cum comite uno Collatiam uenit.
After a few days passed, Sextus Tarquinius went to Collatia with a single comrade, unknown to Collatinus,
[2] ubi exceptus benigne ab ignaris consilii cum post cenam in hospitale cubiculum deductus esset, amore ardens, postquam satis tuta circa sopitique omnes uidebantur, stricto gladio ad dormientem Lucretiam uenit sinistraque manu mulieris pectore oppresso ‘tace, Lucretia’ inquit; ‘Sex. Tarquinius sum; ferrum in manu est; moriere, si emiseris uocem.’
where he was courteously received by those who were unaware of his intentions; after dinner when he was escorted into the guest room, burning with lust, and after everything around seemed safe enough and they were all sleeping, he went to Lucretia who was sleeping; and when he pressed upon the woman’s chest with his left hand he said [to her], “Be silent, Lucretia; I am Sextus Tarquinius; there is a sword in my hand and you will die, if you utter a sound.”
[3] cum pauida ex somno mulier nullam opem, prope mortem imminentem uideret, tum Tarquinius fateri amorem, orare, miscere precibus minas, uersare in omnes partes muliebrem animum.
The woman was terrified awake from her sleep when she saw that there was no help, that death was looming close by, and at that time Tarquinius attempted to confess his love, to plead, to mix threats with his pleading, and to manipulate her womanly heart in all ways.
[4] ubi obstinatam uidebat et ne mortis quidem metu inclinari, addit ad metum dedecus: cum mortua iugulatum seruum nudum positurum ait, ut in sordido adulterio necata dicatur.
When he saw that she was obstinate and still did not submit to the fear of death, he added dishonor to her fear: he said that when she was dead, since he had already cut a slave’s throat, he would place him naked by her side, so that others would say that she was killed in sordid adultery.
[5] quo terrore cum uicisset obstinatam pudicitiam uelut <ui> uictrix libido, profectusque inde Tarquinius ferox expugnato decore muliebri esset, Lucretia maesta tanto malo nuntium Romam eundem ad patrem Ardeamque ad uirum mittit, ut cum singulis fidelibus amicis ueniant; ita facto maturatoque opus esse; rem atrocem incidisse.
With this terror, he had defeated her firm chastity just as though his lust was a victor; and from there, cruel Tarquinius had set out to assault her womanly honor, Lucretia, mourning because of so great a cruelty, sent a message to Rome for her husband and the same message to Ardea for her father — each message carried by trusted friends that they should come to her now; and that it is necessary to take action hastily; since that heinous act had happened.
[6] Sp. Lucretius cum P. Ualerio Uolesi filio, Collatinus cum L. Iunio Bruto uenit, cum quo forte Romam rediens ab nuntio uxoris erat conuentus.
Spurius Lucretius arrived with Publius Valerius, son of Volesus, and Collatinus with Lucius Junius Brutus, when, by chance, as he was returning, he had come by the message of his wife.
[7] Lucretiam sedentem maestam in cubiculo inueniunt. aduentu suorum lacrimae obortae, quaerentique uiro ‘satin salue?’ ‘minime’ inquit; ‘quid enim salui est mulieri amissa pudicitia? uestigia uiri alieni, Collatine, in lecto sunt tuo; ceterum corpus est tantum uiolatum, animus insons; mors testis erit. sed date dexteras fidemque haud impune adultero fore.
They discovered Lucretia sitting in mourning in the bedroom. Her tears flowed with their arrival, and when her husband asked, “Are you well?” She said, “Not at all. What kind of wellness is there for a woman when she loses her chastity? The traces of a strange man were on our bed, Collatinus; yet only my body was violated so much, as my soul was innocent; death will be my witness. But give me your right hand and make an oath to me that it will by no means fall to the impunity of the adulterer.
[8] Sex. est Tarquinius qui hostis pro hospite priore nocte ui armatus mihi sibique, si uos uiri estis, pestiferum hinc abstulit gaudium.’
It was Sextus Tarquinius, who, the previous night, as an enemy instead of a guest, armed with violence, assaulted me, and he brought his destructive lust upon me; from now on, if you all are noble men, bring destruction to him.”
[9] dant ordine omnes fidem; consolantur aegram animi auertendo noxam ab coacta in auctorem delicti: mentem peccare, non corpus, et unde consilium afuerit culpam abesse.
All the men swore this oath to her in succession; they consoled her, whom injured of soul, by diverting the crime from the coerced woman onto the perpetrator1 of the offense: from here on, it has been decided that it is the mind, not the body, that commits moral offense2 and her intention was free from blame.
[10] ‘uos’ inquit ‘uideritis quid illi debeatur: ego me etsi peccato absoluo, supplicio non libero; nec ulla deinde impudica Lucretiae exemplo uiuet.’ cultrum,
“You all,” she said, “shall see through what is owed to me: although I absolve myself from moral offense, I do not beg for impunity at all; and no unchaste woman thereon, shall live on the example of Lucretia.” The blade,
[11] quem sub ueste abditum habebat, eum in corde defigit, prolapsaque in uolnus moribunda cecidit.
which she was accustomed to have hidden under her garment, she buried into her heart, and moribound she fell, collapsing because of this wound.3
Grammatical Notes
- auctorem: literally, someone who makes/does something, so I translated this as perpetrator to show he was the who orchestrated the assault
- peccare: “commits moral offense”
- cultrum … cecidit: while this sentence sounds a bit out of order in English, I tried to maintain Livy’s original word order in my translation because it seemed like a purposeful choice by the author.
Cultural Notes
- Ardea Ardea was a Latin town in Italy. Map source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg
- In simpler terms, this is trying to say that they were being treated poorly by the king because he treated his fellow citizens like they were doing the labor of workmen and slaves. They were being treated like people of lower status.
- Collatia was an ancient town in central Italy. The linked image shows a path from Rome to Collatia. Map source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Via_Collatina.jpg
